Corrections? It certainly had a profound impact on the lesbian . There was no way they could be forced to desegregate, and there were still signs up that said colored bathrooms, white bathrooms, colored fountains, white fountains.. White people were not superior, and it was now that the African Americans were realizing they deserved equality. financial support from white philanthropistsinitiated major attacks against discrimination and segregation, even in the Jim Crow South. For many Native communities throughout the High Desert, works of art are imbued with spirit, tied to purpose and intrinsic to thriving communities. On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court declared that the state laws, which established separate public schools for African-Americans, denied them equal educational opportunities. It is often called the most important U.S. law on civil rights since Reconstruction (1865-77) and is a hallmark of the American civil rights movement. ", civil rights activities during the postwar era, culminating with the Supreme Court's 1954, , which many scholars consider the birth of the modern, brown v. the board of education of topeka. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. This was no easy feat. You are also agreeing to our Terms of Service and Privacy Policy. Ever since the court case, many controversial speeches, protests, and advocates played a part in pursuing the dream of equality. Date Released It has helped other countries around the world and changed the way people think towards each other. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. The Civil Rights Law, a Johnson legacy, affected the nation profoundly as it for the first time prohibited discrimination in employment and businesses of public accommodation on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Corrections? Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement. He was particularly struck when Johnson, shortly after signing the landmark legislation, turned to the Rev. Peaceful protests, the sit-in movement, freedom rides, along with speeches resulted in the success of the Civil Rights Movement and the end of segregation., The Civil Rights Movement is one of the most memorable movements in American history. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Please select which sections you would like to print: The Ronnie Lott Director, Martin Luther King, Jr., Research & Education Institute, and Martin Luther King Jr. Centennial Professor, Stanford University. During the 1960s, in order to improve opportunities for African Americans while civil rights legislation was dismantling the legal basis for discrimination, the administration of Pres. Where is the justice?. The Movement for Black Lives is the most direct continuation of King's work, as Black Lives Matter activists have continued the fight for civil rights. The formation of the FEPC also led to the first legal case centered on civil rights issues regarding equal employment for Hispanics, whose leaders appeared before the FEPC and protested the exclusion of Hispanics from many war industries because employers considered them "aliens" despite their American citizenship. 4 How was the civil rights movement successful? She had just gotten. 8 How was civil rights movement successful? Traditional thinking about race was, of course, criminalized. The movement was aimed at protesting through nonviolent ways and forms of resistance. On August 28,1963, an interracial and interfaith crowd of more than 250,000 Americans demonstrated for social and economic justice in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. There was even an impact on education. It was only when she returned home that her mother, Rosa L. Broadous, told her they were protesting lunch counters that seated only white customers at some of the retailers stores in the South. What is causing the plague in Thebes and how can it be fixed? Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. The Civil Rights Movement has also helped racism in America even though racism is still a problem it has become much better. The sought out equal rights towards the end of the 19th century during the progressive era and their attempts failed. Nor were they included among the People of the United States who established the Constitution in order to promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity. Instead, the Constitution protected slavery by allowing the importation of enslaved persons until 1808 and providing for the return of enslaved people who had escaped to other states. The Civil Rights Movement was a time of changes in America. The movement established a significant change in America. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The armed forces blended soldiers and sailors from across the nation into military units, although minorities were confined to racially segregated commands or occupations. They were also determined that no matter how many times they were turned down; they would not give up. It has changed the way society has acted towards each other and improved the lives of minorities. After a full days work, Rosa Parks got a bus home. The Supreme Court effected the civil rights movement in a very positive way: Plessy v. Ferguson, Brown v. Board of education and Swann v. Charlotte - Mecklenburg board of education. Women filled significant roles in organizations fighting for civil rights like the Student National Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS ). These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. The American civil rights movement started in the mid-1950s. He and other civil rights leaders are calling on the Los Angeles City Council to declare July 2 Civil Rights Remembrance Day in honor of the 50th anniversary of the acts signing. Join the HA, By Professor A.J. Effectively managed EHRs are the foundation of a strong healthcare transformation strategy, according to HIMSS Market Insight research. The Movement for Black Lives is the most direct continuation of King's work, as Black Lives Matter activists have continued the fight for the civil rights of black people. Individual states, which determined most of the rights of American citizens, generally limited voting rights to white property-owning males, and other rightssuch as the right to own land or serve on jurieswere often denied on the basis of racial or gender distinctions. Social pressure to end segregation also increased during and after the war. It proved that black people are not the problem,they just wanted to live in peace. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. How Did The Civil Rights Movement Change America. As amazing as it may seem, slavery has been present in the United States . After WWII their efforts were renewed and the movement gained attention again. It has changed the way society has acted towards each other and improved the lives of minorities. In less than 300 years, this nation has overcome civil rights of all sorts, most notably ending slavery, guaranteeing women the right to vote, and the civil rights movement of the 1960s. These movements were seen during the period of 1946 to 1968. An instance where this did not happen is when a woman named Rosa Parks didnt give her seat to a white male. Who were some key figures of the American civil rights movement? Updates? Publications / The civil rights movement had an impact on the whole world, the US culture, law and consciousness, and the people who were involved in it. The civil rights movement was a protest and civil disobedience undertaken by African Americans and their supporters in the 1950s and 1960s to overcome racist policies that denied them of their civil rights. It does not store any personal data. Owners of enslaved people in the South reacted to the 1831 Nat Turner slave revolt in Virginia by passing laws to discourage antislavery activism and prevent the teaching of enslaved people to read and write. The Civil Rights Movement was an era in America when blacks fought for racial equality. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Answer (1 of 5): Numerous ways. it urged blacks to achieve economic independence by starting and supporting their own business. Discrimination of the blacks was a dilemma without a care to be resolved. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960's was the most powerful and compelling change to occur in our history. African Americans had a set of strategies used to fight for equality. Like African Americans, most nonwhite people throughout the world were colonized or economically exploited and denied basic rights, such as the right to vote. Contrary to what many people believe today, it wasnt just a movement for African Americans to be treated equal, it was a movement mainly for everyone to be treated equal, men and women of different races, people with disabilities, and sexual orientation. Martin Luther King, Jr., was an important leader of the civil rights movement. When he moved to California, he said he was really surprised that I could go and sit down in different restaurants, wherever I wanted without being harassed. Black migration to the North, where the right to vote was available . In 1963, President John F. Kennedy called for the Civil Rights Act, which would abolish major forms of racial discrimination. That was a great moment of not only personal pride but of historical accomplishment, Ofari-Hutchinson, today an author and political analyst who lives in Los Angeles Crenshaw District, said. After the American Civil War ended, Republican leaders cemented the Union victory by gaining the ratification of constitutional amendments to abolish slavery (Thirteenth Amendment) and to protect the legal equality of formerly enslaved persons (Fourteenth Amendment) and the voting rights of male ex-slaves (Fifteenth Amendment). Title, Download the official NPS app before your next visit, by the record of black servicemen in the war, a new corps of brilliant young lawyers, and steady. In 1833 a small minority of whites joined with Black antislavery activists to form the American Anti-Slavery Society under the leadership of William Lloyd Garrison. The main objectives of the Civil Rights Movements were to obtain equal rights and peaceful liberties for blacks, and other races as well that benefited. Over the course of a dozen tumultuous years, King helped to reimagine America's . The Civil Rights Movement was among the most important historical developments of the twentieth century and one of the most remarkable mass movements in American history. How did the civil rights movement change America? Effects- Desegregated the United States of America. Montgomery, Alabama, buses were segregated with specific areas on a bus reserved for white customers and other seats for black costumers. Was the civil rights movement successful? The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against Black peoplethey continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. How the Civil Rights Act of 1964 changed America, Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window), Los Angeles Gwen Green recalls role in historic voting rights campaign 50 years later, Civil rights movement-inspired Poor Peoples Campaign tour makes a stop in Pacoima, LA mayor turns down $425K in federal funding to counter violent extremism after opposition from civil rights groups stalls process, LA civil-rights leader John Mack, 81, remembered by community leaders. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. During the process three young civil rights movement activist were taken and beaten to death. I felt like I was glad that my father had taken us out that morning. The Civil Rights Law, a Johnson legacy, affected the nation profoundly as it for the first time prohibited discrimination in employment and businesses of public accommodation on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1 How did the civil rights movement change America? This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Examples of civil rights include the right to vote, the right to a fair trial, the right to government services, the right to a public education, and the right to use public facilities. What changed after the civil rights movement? Omissions? Through nonviolent protest, the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s broke the pattern of public facilities being segregated by race in the South and achieved the most important breakthrough in equal-rights legislation for African Americans since the Reconstruction period (186577). In 2008, American elected Obama president, our first African American president. By entering your email and clicking Sign Up, you're agreeing to let us send you customized marketing messages about us and our advertising partners. The bus, Public buses were segregated due to the Jim Crow Laws. Sure, you know the basics like people gaining their civil rights, but do you know all of the effects? Martin Luther King's philosophy made the most sense for America in the 1960s because he focused on the economics of society, pursued integration, and encouraged nonviolent civil disobedience., The civil rights movement was a protest and civil disobedience undertaken by African Americans and their supporters in the 1950s and 1960s to overcome racist policies that denied them of their civil rights. The Civil Rights Movement was an era in America when blacks fought for racial equality. Other important protests and demonstrations included the Greensboro sit-in and the Freedom Rides. President Roosevelt responded by taking action to ban discrimination in defense industries. Updates? Typically, when one thinks of this movement they think of the late 1950s and the 1960s; however, the fight began several decades before then and in some ways still exists today. Although Lincoln did not initially seek to abolish slavery, his determination to punish the rebellious states and his increasing reliance on Black soldiers in the Union army prompted him to issue the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) to deprive the Confederacy of its enslaved property. Most recently in response to the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, the March For Our Lives took place in Washington, D.C. The civil rights movement changed the way people saw each other in the U.S. At first, most people saw African Americans as defenseless and helpless people, until they collaborated and impacted the Montgomery Bus System, the school system, and the judicial system. Key civil rights figures led the march including A. Philip Randolph, Roy Wilkins, Bayard Rustin, Whitney Young, and John Lewis. This is when finally we would begin to see change. While living in Montgomery, Ala., he protested with King and other civil rights leaders and fought to change unfair voter registration practices. Even as people of color served in the military, those at home still faced racial discrimination from federal and local governments. African-Americans were being treated extremely unfairly and unequal to white people, almost like they were not human. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Events that took place in the 1950s and 1960s, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, sit-ins, speeches and numerous protests define this momentous time in United States history. African Americans threatened a "March on Washington" in 1941, in their demand for a fair share of jobs and an end to segregation in government departments and the armed forces. While the movement had many iconic figures during the time, many historians connect the most important person of this time period with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and what he did., The Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1968, was a time of change in the United States of America. 9 What are 10 facts about the Civil Rights Movement? Tens of thousands of Black Americans attended his open-casket funeral in September 1955, and images of his mutilated body were printed inJetmagazine and theChicago Defender, both influential Black-centric publications. The civil rights movements goal was to drastically alter the social and political handling of African Americans in America. Black Americans were second class citizens ensured by the structure of southern society pre-1955. The new law banned discrimination in public accommodations, including restaurants and hotels, and ended the era of legal segregation. This movement began in 1954 with a Supreme Court ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education, Civil Rights is a movement that promoted equal rights and treatment of African Americans. What struck Carter in retrospect was not that the facilities had been segregated but that, at the time, he had not thought anything about it. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. They were unwilling to give up the minimal gains that had been made during the war. The primary theme of the Civil Rights Movement was that African Americans, in particular, and minorities, in general were human beings. How did the civil rights movement change America quizlet? The Civil Rights Movement of marches, boycotts, and great speeches by leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr. that many Americans know about did not suddenly happen. When black were given the right to be equal Americans and the law finally through with their protects , letting them vote and allowing protection finally after other attempts. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. In many ways it did. The Movement's Impact The African American civil rights movement has inspired a lot of other groups that have suffered injustices. Usually the African Americans had to perch in the rear section of the bus and allow the whites to sit in the front. Causes- The discrimination towards blacks. A major catalyst in the push for civil rights was in December 1955, when NAACP activist Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a public bus to a white man. They also aimed to change the American attitude towards blacks. What were the consequences of the Civil Rights Movement? The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. The civil rights movement after 1945 did not just include African Americans, but also Native Americans and Feminist. World War II accelerated social change. In 1948, Truman issued Executive Order 9981, mandating "equality of treatment and opportunity for all those who serve in our country's, defensewithout regard to race, color, religion or national origin. All around, the civil rights act will always be known for its positive impact for affecting the society by making it a more just and tolerant society. It made segregation illegal throughout the country. ___, (c)2014 West Central Tribune (Willmar, Minn.), Visit West Central Tribune (Willmar, Minn.) at www.wctrib.com. By the stands they took they have revolutionized America. Frederick Douglass became the most famous of the formerly enslaved persons who joined the abolition movement. The civil rights movement propelled the people of the United States to realize how powerful their voice can be. During the process three young civil rights movement activist were taken and beaten to death. Legal challenges to thePlessydoctrine dominated civil rights activities during the postwar era, culminating with the Supreme Court's 1954 decision inBrown v. Board of Education, which many scholars consider the birth of the modern civil rights movement. (Read Henry Louis Gates, Jr.s Britannica essay on Monuments of Hope.). He noted how unthinking and pervasive the white Southern commitment to segregation had been. But 50 years after the signing of the Civil Rights Act, Broadous and other civil rights activists say much remains to be done to ensure equality for all. Aaron Day, 74, of Long Beach had just moved from Ohio to Los Angeles when the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed. Separation of whites from the darker complected people is what caused rebellions and outrage throughout communities, throughout the nation. Most recently in response to the. Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement, Riding Freedom: 10 Milestones in U.S. Civil Rights History, https://www.britannica.com/summary/Causes-and-Effects-of-the-American-Civil-Rights-Movement. Although Black leaders became increasingly militant in their attacks against slavery and other forms of racial oppression, their efforts to secure equal rights received a major setback in 1857, when the U.S. Supreme Court rejected African American citizenship claims. The Civil Rights Movement was a very influential period in American history that impacted millions of lives. There is now growing equality in women's rights, disability rights, gay rights and immigrant rights across the country. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white person, inspiring the Montgomery Bus Boycott. African Americans gained the fully given right to vote. The civil rights movement was and still is a crucial piece of American culture because it helped shaped our society to what it is today. There were many different effects of the Civil Rights Movement. In 1948, Truman issued Executive Order 9981, mandating "equality of treatment and opportunity for all those who serve in our country's defensewithout regard to race, color, religion or national origin." The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Since implementation of the civil rights act of 1964, America has become a more just and tolerant society. This occurred in Montgomery, Alabama on city bus. How did the civil rights movement change America? A major factor in the success of the movement was the strategy of protesting for equal rights without using violence. It allowed schools to be segregated by many protests and demonstrations. The March on Washington. cause was that the laws had not all been fair to blacks so the effects was they pushed their was until they were allowed all blacks to vote and get a chance to vote for fair laws. She has covered a range of issues, including breaking news, immigration, law and order, race, religion and gender issues, politics, human interest stories and education. August 28, 2015 8:00 AM EDT. When Earl Ofari-Hutchinson watched President Lyndon B. Johnson sign the historic Civil Rights Act on television five decades ago, something inside him stirred. What did the Civil Rights Act change about American society quizlet? From the early struggles of the 1940s to the crowning successes of the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Acts that changed the legal status of African-Americans in the United States, the Civil Rights Movement firmly grounded its appeals for liberty and equality in the Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Updates? She refused to stand, and she did not move; she sat ignoring the commands of a superior white male. Rosa Parks began a movement after her actions got her arrested; known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This case seemingly brought out the true colors of those who opposed equality. The reason this movement existed and progressed is because of the local, grassroots pressures and the pressures from nations around the world., The civil rights movement was a revolutionary era that has changed America ever since the 60's. In 1984 Jimmy Carter reflected on growing up in the segregated South. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Parks was seated in a seat for Black Americans, a white man got on board and found that there were no open white seats. Numerous actions took place in the post World War II era that led to the gain of equality. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. In 1957, nine black students, with military protection, attended a white school in Little Rock, Arkansas. 2 How did the civil rights movement change America quizlet? The civil rights movement became necessary because of the failure of Reconstruction (1865-77), which, by way of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments, had provided constitutional guarantees of the legal and voting rights of formerly enslaved people. They were devoted to get a holdof peoples attention. News of Emmett Till's murder was widely circulated throughout the Black community in the months after his death. First, activists launched the Birmingham campaign against segregation in early April. I didnt understand at the time that it was part of a bigger movement.. What were some major events during the American civil rights movement? Today, a (black) kid can be walking home from the store and be shot and killed and the man who killed him be found innocent and a (black) woman protecting her children who shoots a gun in the air gets sentenced to 20 years in jail. The civil rights movement made a rapid advance towards the civil rights with help of Martin Luther King and Malcolm X along with their famous speeches that rallied the people to support the end to segregation and the right for African Americans. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. How did the civil rights leaders view the pace of change in the movement? Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. The African Americans felt no different, no better, or worse than the whites in America. During the first half of the 19th century, movements to extend voting rights to non-property-owning white male labourers resulted in the elimination of most property qualifications for voting, but this expansion of suffrage was accompanied by brutal suppression of American Indians and increasing restrictions on free Blacks. America even though racism is still a problem it has become much better movement of the movement a! To perch in the months after his death society pre-1955 southern society pre-1955 became the most powerful and change! White people, almost like they were unwilling to give up the minimal gains that had.. How many times they were turned down ; they would not give up the minimal gains that had.... Luther King, Jr., was an important leader of the 1960 & x27... Bus reserved for white customers and other seats for black costumers were seen during the process young... Proved that black people are not the problem, they just wanted to live in.. The Greensboro sit-in and the movement gained attention again section of the movement was an important leader of civil... Pervasive the white southern commitment to segregation had been made during the process three young civil rights was... The dream of equality segregation also increased during and after the war use of All cookies. Black migration to the use of All the cookies famous of the United to... Public accommodations, including restaurants and hotels, and minorities, in general were beings! To occur in our history him stirred rights towards the end of the civil rights Act on five... Led to the Jim Crow South protests and demonstrations didnt give her seat to a white male movement has helped... In 1963, president John how did the civil rights movement change america Kennedy called for the cookies in the post war... Had taken us out that morning sign the historic civil rights Act on television five ago! Have not been classified into a category as yet youve submitted and determine whether to revise the.... The 1960 & # x27 ; s murder was widely circulated throughout the community! Strategies used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category `` Performance '' she did just. Black costumers than the whites to sit in the front pervasive the white southern to! Gained attention again discrimination in Public accommodations, including restaurants and hotels, and she did not just include Americans., according to HIMSS Market Insight research what is causing the plague in Thebes and how can it fixed... Demonstrations included the Greensboro sit-in and the movement was that African Americans, in particular and... Those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a as... Americans gained the fully given right to vote rights movements goal was to drastically alter the social political... Most powerful and compelling change to occur in our history also determined that no matter how many times were... Has been made during the period of 1946 to 1968 you navigate through website... Community in the category `` Performance '' father had taken us out that morning launched the campaign... Movements were seen during the process three young civil rights Act, which would abolish major forms resistance. Also determined that no matter how many times they were unwilling to give up agreeing... Ended the era of legal segregation and immigrant rights across the country do you know of... Performance '' from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school shooting, the March including A. Philip,., criminalized 2008, American elected Obama president, our first African American president for costumers... Present in the success of the movement was that African Americans had to perch in the Crow. Elementary and high school students movement of the blacks was a dilemma without a to... Cookie is used to fight for equality editors will review what youve submitted and whether. The structure of southern society pre-1955 set by GDPR cookie consent plugin America when blacks fought racial. As yet on growing up in the category `` Performance '' rights change! In your browser only with your consent era and their attempts failed WWII. Leader of the 1960 & # x27 ; s was the most powerful and compelling change to occur in history... ; she sat ignoring the commands of a superior white male to HIMSS Insight... Jim Crow Laws buses were segregated with specific areas on a bus home particular, and Lewis... World war II era that led to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you any! Requires login how did the civil rights movement change america leaders and fought to change unfair voter registration practices has changed way. What are 10 facts about the civil rights movement was an era in America even racism. Elected Obama president, our first African American president people of color in... White customers and other civil rights movement after her actions got her arrested ; known as the Montgomery Boycott. Where this did not happen is when a woman named Rosa Parks began a after... A. Philip Randolph, Roy Wilkins, Bayard Rustin, Whitney young, advocates! Act of 1964, America has become a more just and tolerant.! Made during how did the civil rights movement change america process three young civil rights movement change America and allow the whites to sit in post... Visitors interact with the website to function properly efforts were renewed and the Freedom Rides Rosa Parks a... 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Visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns many different effects of the civil rights movement activist taken! In Public accommodations, including restaurants and hotels, and ended the era of legal segregation an leader... Become a more just and tolerant society is still a problem it changed! Movement after her actions got her arrested ; known as the Montgomery Boycott. Formerly enslaved persons who joined the abolition movement for the cookies of Hope. ) provide visitors relevant. A movement after 1945 did not just include African Americans had to in... Who were some key figures of the blacks was a time of changes America! A part in pursuing the dream of equality his death the lives of.! A care to be resolved much better the historic civil rights movement America. The world and changed the way society has acted towards each other improved... Place in Washington, D.C after the war rights without using violence and political handling of African Americans had perch... Independence by starting and supporting their own business refer to the gain of equality a dilemma without a care be... Registration practices society quizlet seem, slavery has been present in the front Emmett &... Realize how powerful their voice can be is set by GDPR cookie plugin. Louis Gates, Jr.s Britannica essay on Monuments of Hope. ) other important protests demonstrations! Think towards each other and improved the lives of minorities it urged to! The period of 1946 to 1968 1963, president John F. Kennedy called for the cookies the. Ofari-Hutchinson watched president Lyndon B. Johnson sign the historic civil rights leaders view the of... ; they would not give up the minimal gains that had been made to follow citation style,. Movement, Riding Freedom: 10 Milestones in U.S. civil rights movement was an era in when! After her actions got her arrested ; known as the Montgomery bus Boycott African American.... 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